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Common instrument names and orchestral terms in English, Italian, French and German

Instrument names and orchestral terms

This page gives an overview of instrument names and orchestral terms in English, Italian, French and German. Frequently used instrument names are presented in singular and plural, and instrument name abbreviations are shown in the last column of the table. Names and orchestral terms are given for various categories in separate tables. Reference sources are listed at the bottom of the page.

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Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

Instrument names

INSTRUMENT NAMES - STRINGS / WINDS / BRASS
English Italian French German Abbr.
Voice Voce Voix Stimme Voc.
Strings Archi Cordes Streich-instrumente Violin
Violin(s) Violino(-i) Violon(s) Violine(n), Geige(n) V., Vn.
Viola(s) Viola, Viole Alto(s) Bratsche(n) Vla., Va., Br.
Cello(s) Violoncello(-i) Violoncelle(s) Violoncello(-e) Vlc., Vc.
Double Bass(es) Contrabbasso(-i) Contrebasse(s) Kontrabass(-bässe) Cb., Kb.
Harp(s) Arpa, Arpe Harpe(s) Harfe(n)  
Double-action harp Arpa a doppio movimento Harpe à double mouvement Doppelpedalharfe Harp, Arp., Hpe.
Woodwinds Legni/Fiati Bois Holzbläser Flute
Piccolo Flauto piccolo, Ottavino Petite Flûte Kleine Flöte, Pikkoloflöte Picc.
Flute(s) Flauto(-i) Flûte(s) Flöte(n) Fl.
Alto flute Flauto contralto Flûte alto en sol Altflöte A.Fl.
Bass flute Flauto basso Flûte basse Baßflöte B.Fl.
Oboe(s) Oboe, Oboi Hautbois Oboe, Hoboe, Oboen Ob., Hb.
English horn Corno inglese Cor anglais Englisch Horn E.H.
Oboe d'amore in A Oboe d'amore Hautbois d'amour Liebesoboe Ob.d'A.
Eb Clarinet Clarinetto piccolo in mib Clarinette en mib Es Klarinette Eb.Cl., Eb.Kl.
Clarinet(s) Clarinetto(-i) Clarinette(s) Klarinette(n) Cl., Kl.
Bass clarinett Clarione, Clarinetto basso Clarinette basse Bassklarinette B.Cl., Bkl.
Bassoon(s) Fagotto(-i) Basson(s) Fagott(e) Bn., Fg.
Contrabassoon(s) Contrafagotto(-i) Contre-basson(s) Kontrafagott(e) C.Bn., C.Fag., C.Bssn., Con.Bn., C.Bon.
Saxophone(s) Sassofono(-i) Saxophone(s) Saxophon(e) Sax.
Harmonica Armonica a bocca Harmonica à bouche Mundharmonika  
Recorder Flauto dolce, Flauto a becco Flûte à bec, Flûte douce Blockflöte  
Ocarina Ocarina Ocarina Okarina  
Brass Ottoni Cuivres Blech-instrumente Trumpet
French Horn(s) Corno(-i) Cor(s) Horn, Hörner Hn., Cor.
Trumpet(s) Tromba, Trombe Trompette(s) Trompete(n) Tr., Tbe. (pl.)
Cornet(s) Cornetto(-i) Cornet(s) Kornett(e) Crnt., Kor.
Flugelhorn Flicorno Bugle a pistons Flügelhorn Flg.
Trombone(s) Trombone(-i) Trombone(s) Posaune(n) Trb., Tbni. (pl), Tbn., Pos.
Bass trombone Trombone basso Trombone basse Baßposaune B.Tbn.
Valve trombone Trombone a pistoni, trombone a macchina Trombone à pistons Ventilposaune  
Tuba(s) Tuba Tuba(s) Tuba Tuba
Bass Tuba(s) Tuba di basso Tuba basse Basstuba B.Tuba, Btb.
Baritone Horn(s), Euphonium(s) Bombarda, Flicorno basso Baryton, Euphonium, Euphonion, Saxhorn tuba, Tuba ténor Euphonion, Baryton Bar., Euph.
English Italian French German Abbr.

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Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

INSTRUMENT NAMES - PERCUSSION - DEFINITE PITCH
English Italian French German Abbr.
Percussion Percussione / Batteria Batterie Schlagzeug Drum sticks 
(Wooden with Definite Pitch)
Marimba Marimba Marimba Marimba, Marimbaphon Mar.
Xylophone Silofono, Xilofono, Gigelira Xylophone, Claquebois Xylophon, Strohfiedel Xyl.
(Metal with Definite Pitch)
Glockenspiel, Orchestral Bells Campanelli Jeu de timbres, Carillon Glockenspiel Glck., Glsp.
Vibraphone Vibrafono Vibraphone Vibraphon Vib.
Tubular Bells, (Bell) Chimes Campani tubulari (Tubes de) Cloches Glocken, Röhrenglocken Ch., Camp., Cloch., Glk.
Celesta Celesta, Celeste Célesta Celesta  
Gong Gong Gong Gong  
Antique Cymbals, Crotales Crotali, cimbali Cymbales antiques, crotales (Antike) Zimbeln, Crotales, Antike Cymbeln Crot.
Handbells Campanella a mano Clochettes à mains Handglocken  
Almglocken Campane da pastore Sonnailles de troupeau Almglocken  
Steel drum Tamburo d'acciaio Tambour d'acier Stahltrommel  
Musical saw Sega cantante Scie musicale Spielsäge  
Anvil Incudine Enclume Amboss  
Flexatone Flessatono Flexatone Flexaton  
Tubaphone Tubofono Tubaphone Tubaphon  
(Skin-covered with Definite Pitch)
Timpani (pl), Kettle drums Timpano(-i) Timbale(s) Pauke(n) Timp., Pk.
Roto-tom Roto-tom-tom Roto-tom Tom-Tom-Spiel  
(Other with Definite Pitch)
Slide whistle Flauto a culisse Sifflet à coulisse Lotosflöte  
Musical glasses Bicchieri di vetro Coupes de verre Gläserspiel  
English Italian French German Abbr.

Navigate the tables (Click on the links)
Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

INSTRUMENT NAMES - PERCUSSION - INDEFINITE PITCH
English Italian French German Abbr.
(Wooden with Indefinite Pitch)
Woodblock Cassetina, Blocco di legno (cinese) Wood bloc, Bloc de bois Holzblock  
Temple blocks Blocchi di legno coreani, Blocchi cinesi Temple-blocs Tempelblöcke  
Claves Claves Claves Claves, Holzstab  
Castanets Castagnette, nacchere Castagnettes Kastagnetten Cas., Kas.
Agogo-bells (wooden) Agogo di legno Agogo de bois Holzglocken  
Guiro Guiro Güiro Guiro  
Maracas Maracas Maracas Maracas  
Cabasa Cabasa Cabaza, calebasse Cabaza  
Jaw bone (of an ass), quijada Mascella d'asino Quijada Schlagrassel  
Vibra slap Vibra slap Vibra slap Vibraslap  
Slit drum Tamburo di legno a fessura Tambour de bois, tambour à fente Schlitztrommel  
(Metal with Indefinite Pitch)
Finger cymbals Cimbalini Cymbales digitales Fingerzimbeln  
Cymbals (pl) Piatti (pl) Cymbales (pl) Becken (pl) Cymb., Ptti., Bck.
Crash cymbals Piatti, cinelli Cymbales Becken-Paar, Becken gewönlich  
Suspended cymbal Piatto sospeso Cymbale suspendue Hängendes Becken, Becken freihängend  
Sizzle cymbal Piatto chiodati Cymbale sur tiges Nietenbecken  
Hi-hat cymbal Hi-hat, piatti a pedale Cymbale à pédale, cymbales charleston Hi-Hat Becken, Fussbecken  
Chinese cymbal Piatto cinese Cymbale chinoise Chinesische Becken  
Triangle Triangolo Triangle Triangel Trgl.
Cowbells Campanelli di vacca, Campanelli da mucca, Campanacci Cloches de vache, Gencerros Herdenglocken, Kuhglocken, Viehschellen  
Agogo Agogo Agogo Agogo  
Tam-tam Tamtam Tam-tam Tamtam  
Gong Gong Gong Gong  
Wind gong (Feng Luo) Gong di vento Gong à vent Windgong  
Bells Campane Cloches Glocken  
Bell tree Mezzaluna Cloches pavillon Schellenbaum  
Sleighbells Sonagli, sonagliera Grelots (Roll)Schellen  
Bell plate Campana in lastra di metallo Cloche en lame de métal PLattenglocke  
Cymbal tongs, metal castanets Castagnette di ferro Castagnettes de fer Gabelbecken  
Iron pipe Tubo di ferro Tuyau de fer Eisenröhre  
Chains Catena Chaîne Kettenrassel  
(Skin-covered with Indefinite Pitch)
Snare drum, Side drum Tamburo, Piccolo Cassa, Tamburo piccolo Tambour, Caisse claire (Kleine) Trommel Sn.Dr., C.C., Tr.
With snares on/off (snare drum) colle/senza le corde avec/sans timbres mit/ohne Schnarrsaite  
Piccolo snare drum Tamburo acuto Petit tambour Pikkolotrommel
Field drum Tamburo militare Tambour militaire Rührtrommel, Militärtrommel  
Tenor drum Tamburo rullante, cassa rullante Caisse roulante Rührtrommel, Wirbeltrommel, Tenortrommel  
Bongo drums Bongos, Bonghi Bongos Bongos  
Tom-toms Tom-toms Tom-toms Tom-toms  
Timbales Timpanetti, Timbales latino-americani Timbales Cubaines, Timbales Créoles Timbales, Kuba-Pauken  
Conga drums Tumbas Congas Congas, Conga-Trommel, Tumba  
Bata drums Tamburo bata Tambour bata Bata-Trommel  
Bass Drum (upright/on side) (Gran) Cassa, Tamburone, Tamburo grande (orizzontale) Grosse Caisse (verticale/à plat) Grosse Trommel (aufrecht/liegend) B.Dr., Gr.Cassa, Gr.Tr., G.C.
Tambourine Tamburino, Tamburo Basco Tambour de Basque Schellentrommel, Tambourin Tmbn., Tamb.
Frame drum, Tambourine without jingles Tamburino senza cimbali Tambour sur cadre Rahmentrommel  
Tabor Tamburo Tambour de Provence, Tambourin Tambourin  
Djembe Djembe Djembe Djembe  
Tambora Tambora Tambora Tambora  
Chinese tom-tom Tom-tom cinese Tom-tom chinois Chinesische Tom-tom  
Tabla Tabla Tabla Tabla Bamya  
Lion's roar, Jackdaw Ruggito del leone Rugissement de lion, Tambour à corde Löwengebrüll  
Cuica, Rommelpot Tamburo a frizione, Puttiputti Tambour de friction Reibtrommel, Brummtopf  
(Other with Indefinite Pitch)
Whip, Slapstick Frusta Fouet Peitsche  
Rattle, Ratchet Raganella Crécelle Ratsche  
Police whistle Fischietto a pallina Sifflet à roulette Trillerpfeife  
Bird whistle Richiamo per uccelli Appeau Vogelpfeife  
Duck call Gracidio di anitra Conard Entenquak  
Mouth siren Sirena a fiato Sirène à bouche Sirenenpfeife  
Siren Sirena a mano Sirène Sirene  
Auto horn Clacson Trompe d'auto Autohupe  
Klaxon horn Clacson Klaxon Hupe, Claxon  
Sandpaper blocks Carta vetrata Papier de verre Sandpapier, Sandblöcke  
Berimbao Berimbao Berimbao Berimbao  
Stones Pietra sonora Phonolithes Klingsteine  
Bamboo wind chimes Tubi di bambú Bambou suspendu Bambusröhre  
Wooden wind chimes Bacchette di legno sospese Baguettes de bois suspendues Holz-Windglocken  
Glass wind chimes Bacchette di vetro sospese Baguettes de verre suspendues Glas-Windglocken  
Metal wind chimes Bacchette di metallo sospese Baguettes métalliques suspendues Metall-Windglocken  
Shell wind chimes Bacchette di conchiglia sospese Baguettes de coquille suspendues Muschel-Windglocken  
Thunder sheet Tuono a pugno Tonnerre à poignée  
Wind machine Macchina del vento Machine à vent  
Pistol shot Pistolettata Coup de pistolet Pistolenschuss  
English Italian French German Abbr.

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Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

INSTRUMENT NAMES - PERCUSSION - KEYBOARD / FRETTED STRINGS
English Italian French German Abbr.
Keyboard(Keyboards)
Pianoforte, Piano Pianoforte, Piano Pianoforte, Piano Pianoforte, Piano, Klavier Pno., Pfte.
Harpsichord Cembalo, Clavicembalo, Arpicordo Clavecin Cembalo, Clavicembalo, Arpicordo  
Organ Organo Orgue Orgel Org.
Accordion Fisarmonica Accordéon Akkordeon, Ziehharmonika, Handharmonika  
Guitar(Fretted strings)
Guitar Chitarra Guitare Gitarre Gtr.
Rhythm/Electric guitar Chitarra battente / elettrica Guitarre de jazz / électrique Schlag- (Rhythmus) / Elektrische Gitarre E.Gtr.
Mandolin Mandolino Mandoline Mandoline Mand.
Ukulele Ukulele Ukulélé Ukulele  
Banjo Banjo, Bangio Banjo Banjo  
English Italian French German Abbr.

Navigate the tables (Click on the links)
Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

Orchestral terms

The table contains a list of frequently used orchestral terms in English, Italian, French and German. For reference sources, see the list at the bottom of the page.

ORCHESTRAL TERMS - STRINGS / WIND / BRASS
English Italian French German
muted, mutes on, with mute con sordino, con sordini sourdine(s), avec sourdine mit Dämpfer, gedämpft
mute mettere la sordina mettre le sourdine, étouffer dämpfen
take off mutes via sordini enlevez les sourdines Dämpfern weg
without mute senza sordino sans sourdine ohne Dämpfer
ViolinStrings
bow arco archet Bogen
with the wood of the bow col legno avec le bois col legno, mit Holz
tip, point of the bow testa, punta tête, pointe Kopf, Spitze
at the point of the bow punta d'arco (de la) pointe Spitze
frog, heel of bow tallone hausse, talon Frosch
at the frog al tallone du talon am Frosch
fingerboard tastiera touche Griffbrett
over the fingerboard sul tasto, sulla tastiera sur la touche am Griffbrett
bridge ponticello chevalier Steg
at (near) the bridge sul ponticello sur le chevalet, près du chevalet, contre le chevalet sul ponticello, am Steg
in the ordinary way, natural (after sul pont., etc.) modo ordinario (ord.), naturale, normale mode ordinaire, naturel gewöhnlich, natürlich, normal
front (of body) piano armonico, tavola, armonica table d'harmonie Decke
back (of body) fondo armonico fond Boden
string corda corde Saite
on D sul D 3 corde (vln) auf der D Saite
scordatura scordatura scordatura Skordatur
change G to F# sol muta in fa# changez sol en fa# G nach Fis umstimmen
dampen (the string) velare étouffer dämpfen
no arpeggio (multiple stops) senza arpeggio sans arpège ohne Arpeggio
desk or stand leggio pupitre Pult
divided, divisi divisi (div.) divisé(e)s (div.) geteilt (get.)
not divided, unison, in unison unisono (unis.), insieme unis, unisson, simultané zusammen, einfach, insieme
divided by stand divisi da leggii divisé par pupitres geteilt pultweise
divided in 3 parts div. a 3 div à 3 dreifach geteilt
divided in 4 parts div. a 4 div à 4 vierfach geteilt
the others (the rest of a string group) gli altri, le altre les autres die Andere
near the sounding board, près de la table, quasi gitara (harp) presso sulla tavola près de la table Resonanztisch
bisbigliando, whispering (harp) bisbigliando chuchotant flüsternd
dampen, sons étouffes (harp) velare, coprire sons étouffes Dämpfen
laissez vibrer, let vibrate (harp) lasciar vibrare laissez vibrer klingen lassen
ScoreSolo vs. multiple players
1st 1er 1ste
2d 2e 1te
a 2, both a 2 à 2 zu 2
solo solo seul allein
all tutti tous alle
FluteWoodwinds
mouthpiece imboccatura a becco, bocchino a becco bec Schnabel, Mundstück
embouchure imboccatura embouchure Mundloch
finger hole buco trou Griffloch
head/upper/lower joint testata/pezzo superiore/pezzo inferiore corps superieur/corps de la main gauche/corps de la main droite Kopfstück/Oberstück/Unterstück
closed, open hole foro chiuso, aperto trou fermé, ouvert geschlossenes, offenes Griffloch
key hole foro della chiave trou de clef Klappenloch
register key portavoce clef du pouce Überblasklappe
bell padiglione, campana pavillon, bonne Schallbecher, Stütze
reed ancia anche Rohrblatt
double reed ancia doppia anche double doppeltes Rohrblatt
diatonic (harmonica) diatonico diatonique diatonisch
chromatic (harmonica) cromatico chromatique chromatisch
blow (harmonica) soffiare souffler blasen
draw (harmonica) inspirare inspirer einatmen
TrumpetBrass
mouthpiece imboccatura, bocchino embouchure Mundstück
valves pistoni pistons, cylindres Ventile
slide pompa mobile a coulisse coullisse Zug
tuning slide pompa d'accordo corps de recharge Stimmbogen, Knie
bell campana pavillon Schnallstück, Stürze
bells in the air, bells up campane in aria, padiglinoni in alto pavillons en l'air Schalltrichter auf, Stürze hoch
half (a string group) le metà la moitié die Hälfte
stopped (horns) chiuso, chiusi bouché(s) gestopft
brassy, brassed tone metallizare i suoni, produrre suoni metallici cuivré(s) schmetternd
stopped chiuso étouffer, bouché gestopft
stopped notes suoni chiusi sons bouchés, sons éouffés Stopftöne
open aperto, aperti ouvert(s) offen
English Italian French German

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Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

ORCHESTRAL TERMS - PERCUSSION
English Italian French German
Drum sticksPercussion
single stroke colpo singolo coup single einfacher Schlag
flam colpo preceduto da acciaccatura flam einfacher Vorschlag
drag gruppetto di due note drag doppelter Vorschlag
ruff ruff, rullo ruff dreifacher Vorschlag
open/closed (or buzz or crush) roll rullo rimbalzato/stretto roulement ouvert/fermé offener/dichter Wirbel
choked, dry secco sec trocken
let ring lasciar vibrare laisser vibrer, laisser résonner klingen lassen, ausklingen lassen
soft sticks bachette molli, bachette morbide baguettes molles, baguettes douces mit weiche Schlegeln
hard/medium/soft sticks bachette dure/medie/soffici (morbidi) baguettes dures/moyens/doux (mous) mit harten/mitteln/weichen Schlegeln
wooden sticks bacchette di legno baguettes en bois, baguettes de bois Holzschlegel
rubber mallets bacchette con l'estremita di gomma baguettes en caoutchouc Gummischlegel
plastic mallets bacchette di plastica baguettes en plastique Kunststoffschlegel
brass/steel mallets bacchette d'ottone/d'acciaio baguettes de laiton / en acier Messing-/Stahlschlegel
wire brushes spazzola brosses Besen, Stahlbesen
hand mano main Hand
finger dito doigt Finger
finger nail ungchia ongle de la main Fingernagel
coin moneta pièce de monnaie Geldstück
fist pugno poing Faust
triangle beater battente da triangolo baguette de triangle Triangelschlegel, Triangelstab
snare drum sticks bacchette da tamburo baguettes de tambour Trommelstöcke
timpani mallets bacchette per timpani baguettes de timbales Paukenschlegel
bass drum beater bacchetta da grancassa mailloche Schlegel for große Trommel
guiro scraper raspa râpe Raspel
English Italian French German

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Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

ORCHESTRAL TERMS - KEYBOARDS / FRETTED STRINGS
English Italian French German
KeyboardKeyboards
key tasto touche Taste
damper smorzo, smorzatoio, smorzatore étouffoir Dämpfer
hammer martello, martelletto marteau Hammer
damper pedal (piano) pedale di risonanza, pedale del forte péda;le forte, pédale de résonance Fortepedal
sostenuto pedal (piano) pedale tonale, pedale solleva smorzatori pédale de prolongation Tonhaltepedal
una corde (piano, single string) una corde una corda, avec pédale sourdine, aved céleste una corda, mit Verschiebung
tre corde (piano, all strings) tre corde toutes les cordes alle Saiten
register, stop (organ, harpsichord) registro registre Register
coupler (organ, harpsichord) accoppiamento accouplement Koppel
rank (organ) tirante registre, tirant Zug
manual (organ) manuale manuel Manual
pedal clavier (organ) pedaliera clavier de pédalier, pédalier Pedalklaviatur
division, organ (organ) organo orgue Orgel, Werk
Great Organ grand'organo grand orgue Hauptwerk
Swell Organ corpo d'organo in cassa espressiva récit Schwellwerk, Oberwerk
Choir Organ organo corale, organo del coro orgue de choeur Chororgel
Positive Organ organo positivo positif Positiv
Echo Organ organo eco clavier d'écho Fernwerk, Echowerk
Pedal Organ pedale dell'organo, corrispondente al pedale ensemble des jeux de pédale Pedalwerk
flue pipe, labial pipe (organ) canna add anima, canna labiale tuyau à bouche Lippenpfeife
reed pipe (organ) canna ad ancia tuyau à anche Zungenpfeife
foundation stops (organ) registro di fondo fonds Grundstimme
flute stops (organ) registro di flauti jeux de flûte Flötenwerk
string stops (organ) registri violeggianti, registri gambati jeux de gambe streichende Stimmen
reed stops (organ) registri ad ancia, registri a lingua jeux d'anches Zungenstimmen
bellows (accordion) mantice soufflet Balg
treble shift (acccordion) piccolo registre de la partie chantante Diskantregister
bass shift (accordion) registro basso registre des basses Baßregister
GuitarFretted Strings
fret tasto sillet, frette Bund
plectrum, pick plettro plectre, médiator Plektrum
capotasto, capo, barre capotasto capodastre, sillet Kapodaster, Saitenfessel
English Italian French German

Navigate the tables (Click on the links)
Table with Instrument Names >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion - Definite Pitch Percussion - Indefinite Pitch Percussion - Keyboards and Fretted Strings
Table with Orchestral Terms >> Strings, Wind and Brass Percussion Keyboards and Fretted Strings Voice and Miscellaneous

ORCHESTRAL TERMS - VOICE / MISCELLANEOUS
English Italian French German
Voice
chest voice voce di petto voix de poitrine Bruststimme
head voice voce di testa voix de tête Kopfstimme
falsetto falsetto voix de fausset, fausset Falsett, Falsettstimme, Fistelimme
vocal cords, vocal fields corde vocali cordes vocales Stimmbänder
ScoreStructure and melody
an important line voce principale voix principale Hauptstimme
a subsidiary line voce secondaria voix secondaire Nebenstimme
English Italian French German

Reference sources

Here's a list of reference sources:

  • Samuel Adler, The Study of Orchestration, 2nd Edition W.W. Norton and Company, New York, ISBN 0-393-95807-8 (1989).
  • Alfred Blatter, Instrumentation and Orchestration, 2nd Edition, Schirmer Books, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, Belmont CA, USA, ISBN 0-534-25187-0 (1997).
  • Sem Dresden, Algemene Muziekleer, 12de druk (in Dutch) Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen, the Netherlands (1972).
  • Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-486-24383-4 (1982).
  • Elizabeth A.H. Green, The Modern Conductor, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, ISBN 0-13-590216-9 (1981).
  • Kent Kennan, Donald Grantham, The Technique of Orchestration, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, ISBN 0-13-466327-6 (1997).
  • Norman Del Mar, Anatomy of the Orchestra, Faber & Faber, London, ISBN 0-571-13185-9 (1983).